What is autism?
Autism is a lifelong neurological and neurodevelopmental difference that affects how a person processes the world, particularly in social and sensory contexts.1 Autism is characterised by:
- Sensory processing differences (hypo-sensitivity or hyper-sensitivity)
- Hyper-focused interests and repetitive behaviour
- Social interaction and communication differences
It's estimated that 1-2% of the population is autistic.1 This would rise significantly if all adult women missed in childhood were diagnosed.2
Autism is up to 90% heritable and tends to run in families.3-5 It is a natural part of human neurodiversity.
What autism is not
There are a lot of misconceptions about autism. Let's set the facts straight.
Not caused by paracetamol
Or vaccines, or mercury, or the refrigerator mother theory, which blamed unloving mothers. These theories are harmful.
Not an epidemic
Autism is not a disease or illness that is contagious, can be prevented, or cured.
Not a mental illness
Autism is a neurological and neurodevelopmental difference. Though autistic people experience high rates of co-occurring mental illness.
Not an intellectual disability
Though around half of autistic people have a co-occurring intellectual disability. Others may have average or high intelligence (giftedness).
Not a specific learning difficulty (SpLD)
The three specific learning difficulties (SpLDs) are dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.
Not a male‑only condition
In fact, recent research controlling for sex differences showed the true ratio might be 1:1.
Not binary
Autistic people are men, women, non‑binary or agender. Some people identify as transgender. Many autistic people proudly identify as LGBTQ+.
Not a child‑only condition
Autism is a lifelong neurological and neurodevelopmental condition.
Not something you grow out of
Many women experience a worsening of difficulties after midlife burnout, pregnancy, or menopause, leading to late diagnosis.
Am I autistic?
Try our free anonymous autism mini‑screen. Real-time scoring - no email sign up necessary.
Autism mini‑screen
Discover if you have the same traits most commonly reported by late‑discovered women and non‑binary people.
Once a subject gets stuck in my head, I struggle to think about anything else or refrain from talking about it.
I find ambiguity and uncertainty unbearable.
I have a habit of playing with my hair, jewellery, or fidgeting with my pen.
I feel extremely exhausted after social events and need significant time alone to recharge.
I struggle to have a balanced one-to-one conversation; I often end up mostly listening or doing all the talking.
Certain smells, such as body odour, strong aftershave, chemicals, or cooking smells, overwhelm my nostrils and make me feel ill.
I consciously choose to wear clothes made from fabrics that are soft to the touch and are not itchy or scratchy.
I have private meltdowns where I experience uncontrollable crying.
I frequently find myself stuck in a loop of thoughts, repeatedly replaying and overanalysing situations.
I am a sponge for other people's emotions, which often leaves me feeling physically drained.
I love to revisit my favourite books, rewatch my favourite shows, or listen to my favourite songs on repeat.
I have a knack for noticing patterns and making connections others might overlook.
When I am overwhelmed, I avoid emails, texts and phone calls, and sometimes I stop communicating altogether.
My wardrobe and cupboards are meticulously organised by size, colour or type.
My hobbies and interests tend to be all-consuming, limiting my participation in other activities or social events.
I avoid group or team activities. I prefer one-on-one interactions.
I have acquired deep expert knowledge in my areas of interest, much of which is self-taught.
I struggle to cope with sudden changes to plans or disruptions to my routine.
I am hypersensitive to being stared at and do not like being the centre of attention.
Certain sounds, such as someone chewing, swallowing or a fridge beeping, are intensely irritating or painful to my ears.
No traits endorsed
Other signs someone might be autistic
Many late‑discovered autistic women, non‑binary and assigned female at birth (AFAB) people say they have always felt different and have experienced many other challenges without knowing why.
I have an autistic parent, sibling or child.
I have another neurodevelopmental difference: ADHD, dyspraxia, dyscalculia, dyslexia, dysgraphia or Tourette's.
I have an intellectual disability (described as a learning disability in the UK) or was labelled gifted at school.
I have epilepsy.
I often struggle to fall asleep at night because of overthinking (insomnia).
I experience debilitating migraines.
I have longstanding IBS, TMJ, tinnitus, chronic back, neck, pelvic pain or fibromyalgia (CSS syndromes).
I have hypermobile joints or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (EDS).
I have asthma, allergies or an autoimmune disorder such as MS.
I have struggled with severe PMS, hormonal mood swings and very painful periods (PME or PMDD).
I have polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS/PMOS).
I have diabetes.
I have struggled with a sense of unease or conflict because there is a mismatch between my biological sex and gender identity (gender dysphoria).
I was singled out at school for bullying, cruelty, or exclusion by my peers or teachers.
I have found it really difficult to get or keep a job, more so than others.
I feel I must mask my true self at work or school to fit in.
I have a deep fear of rejection, criticism, exclusion or abandonment by others.
I have experienced chronic exhaustion or burnout where I have been unable to work or function for many months.
I have battled with depression and low self‑esteem.
I have struggled with crippling anxiety or panic attacks.
I have struggled with an eating disorder such as anorexia, bulimia, binge eating or obsessive healthy eating or exercise (orthorexia).
I numb my feelings or calm myself with food, drugs or alcohol.
I have been diagnosed with OCD, bipolar, or schizophrenia.
I have been diagnosed with borderline (BPD), PTSD or CPTSD.
I have struggled with self‑harm, suicidal thoughts or have attempted to take my own life.
None endorsed
Your experiences are valid
Autistic women face alarming rates of gendered violence and trauma. They are more likely to experience chronic physical or mental illness, long-term unemployment, homelessness and die by suicide than their neurotypical peers.
Try Uma
Uma helps adult women, non‑binary, and AFAB people safely self-screen for autism, ADHD, and CPTSD.
Signposting
Autistic Girls Network
Autistic Girls Network are a small charity founded by neurodivergent woman and mum Cathy Wassell, who support, educate, and bring change for autistic girls.
Signposting
SWAN
Scottish Women's Autism Network (SWAN) is a charity founded by late‑diagnosed autistic woman Dr Catriona Stewart OBE. SWAN is a space created by autistic women, girls and non‑binary people.
Why are autistic women often overlooked?
3-4x as many boys and men are diagnosed with autism. Autistic women are missed, misdiagnosed, and later diagnosed more frequently than men.
Barriers to a medical diagnosis
Women and non‑binary people face significant barriers to accessing a medical diagnosis.
Gender bias in health
Women's health has historically been neglected in medical research. It was not until 1993 that women were legally required to be included in medical research. There is a gender gap in autism health data.
Medical gaslighting
Boys and men are given faster access to medical diagnosis and treatment compared to girls and women. Women are more likely to be dismissed, told the pain is in their head, and sent home with a prescription for antidepressants.
Outdated sex stereotypes
The extreme male brain theory argued that women could not be autistic. Early studies primarily focused on boys and men, neglecting women and transgender autistic people, which has created a binary perception of what autism looks like.
Gendered diagnostic criteria
The autistic diagnostic criteria and screening instruments are based on outdated research about autistic boys and men, lacking sensitivity to gender differences in presentation.
Diagnostic overshadowing
Women are two to three times more likely to be diagnosed with mental illnesses like anxiety, depression, premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), and eating disorders. These conditions frequently co-occur with autism and can obscure the underlying autism, a phenomenon known as "diagnostic overshadowing". These are not simply misdiagnoses; they often co-exist.
Misdiagnosis of BPD
Autistic women are commonly misdiagnosed with borderline personality (BPD), especially those with a history of trauma and co-occurring CPTSD. Other common misdiagnoses include bipolar and OCD. These can and do co-occur.
Masking
The diagnostic process for autism depends heavily on clinician observation. Many late‑discovered autistic women learn to hide their autistic traits and mimic neurotypical behaviours to blend in. This can make their traits less visible to clinicians.
Inability to recollect childhood
Obtaining a medical diagnosis relies on evidence of childhood autistic traits, which can be challenging for women with memory challenges caused by trauma, ADHD, or ageing to recollect. Many women do not have any living relatives who knew them in childhood or may be estranged from their family.
Global waitlist crisis for a diagnosis
Overstretched mental health services cannot meet current demand for ADHD and autism diagnoses. NHS wait times exceed several years.
Cost of a private medical diagnosis
The cost of a private combined AuDHD diagnosis can be up to £3,500. For many marginalised autistic women, the expense of a private diagnosis is unaffordable, resulting in unequal access to medical diagnosis.
Marginalisation
Intersectionality (race, gender identity, socio-economic status, etc.) compounds diagnostic barriers. People with multiple marginalised identities face greater challenges due to systemic bias, a lack of research, and non-culturally aware clinicians.
Breaking down barriers
Uma is designed to help late‑discovered women and non‑binary people challenge these barriers and access a medical diagnosis or support they need.
Autism bookshelf
Questions? Ask Uma.
Autism is a lifelong neurological and neurodevelopmental difference that affects how a person processes the world, particularly in social and sensory contexts.
Autistic traits include: sensory processing differences (hypo or hyper sensitivity), hyper-focused interests, repetitive self-regulatory behaviour (stimming), and social interaction and communication differences, which are distinct ways of relating to others.
Autism is highly heritable and often runs in families. It is a natural part of human neurodiversity. Autism is not a disease or a mental illness that can be prevented, treated or cured.
For reliable, in-depth information about autism, we recommend visiting the Royal College of Psychiatrists website.
AuDHD is a term used by the neurodivergent community to describe a person who is both autistic and has ADHD. Rather than being a separate, official diagnosis, it highlights that the two neurotypes exist in one person and can overlap.
Research shows to 83% of autistic children 6 are also ADHD, and up to 30-65% of ADHD children 7 also have autistic traits. Many adults have just one diagnosis. A dual diagnosis was not available until 2013.
Autism is thought to affect around 1-2% of the population (National Autistic Society, 2024). However, the actual number is thought to be much higher due to underdiagnosis of girls, women and minority genders, particularly those without an intellectual disability who are 10x more likely to be overlooked.
The short answer
Nobody knows what causes autism, or if it has a "cause". Research shows genetics play a primary role. Twin studies show autism is highly heritable and runs in families, with estimates up to 90% 8. Autism is a naturally occurring variation in brain function.4
What does NOT cause autism
- Vaccines
- Dietary factors (e.g., sugar intake)
- Too much screen time
- Poor parenting
- Childhood trauma (though trauma can impact mental health in autistic people)
The long answer
Autism has historically been linked to theories about prenatal hormones and the extreme male brain theory 9, which hypothesised autism was caused by excess prenatal testosterone. A 2019 study instead found elevated oestrogen levels 10 in the womb during foetal development in some autistic people.
Brain differences 11 are also seen in autistic people. Studies have found that certain parts of the brain that help with social understanding, sensory integration, and movement, such as the temporal cortex, cerebellum, and amygdala, may develop or function differently in autistic people. These areas are essential for processing sensory information, interpreting social cues, and coordinating motor skills.
Some earlier research looked at things that happen during pregnancy, known as "prenatal risk factors" 12, which might increase the chance of having an autistic child. For example, some studies have linked extreme prematurity, certain prenatal infections, or high prenatal stress to a higher likelihood of autism.
However, these early studies often failed to recognise that autism is highly heritable, and many autistic mothers in the research were likely undiagnosed at the time. Because of this, the findings from these early studies should be looked at with extreme caution.
Emerging research is also exploring the role of epigenetics, which are changes in gene activity that aren't caused by changes in the DNA sequence itself. This field studies how environmental factors, such as a mother's nutrition or stress level during pregnancy, might influence how certain genes are expressed. This suggests that while genetics provide the blueprint for autism, environmental factors can play a role in how that blueprint is expressed.
How hormonal changes contribute to autism is a growing area of interest, especially among late‑discovered autistic women. Emerging research indicates that differences in oestrogen receptors and a brain chemical called GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) may also play a role.
To dive deeper, see
(Crider et al., 201413; Crider & Pillai, 201714; Altun et al., 201715; Hwang et al., 202116; Molinaro et al., 202417; Dangmann, 202318; Enriquez et al., 202119; Arnold & Saijo, 202120; Lundberg et al., 2021) 21
Autism is highly heritable and primarily genetic. If you have an autistic parent, sibling, or close family member, you’re more likely to be autistic. Twin and family studies show autism runs in families, with heritability estimates up to 90% (e.g., Sandin et al., 2017) 4.
No, autism is not more common in boys and men. Males are 3-4x more likely to be diagnosed with autism (Loomes et al., 2017) 2. The ratio rises to 10:1 in the absence of an intellectual disability (Jamal et al., 2024) 22. However, a recent 2022 study found that when controlling for sex differences amongst children, the number of boys and girls with autistic traits was 1:1 (Burrows et al., 2022) 23. This disparity is often attributed to outdated diagnostic criteria and how autism presents differently in females.
The extreme male brain theory of autism
The extreme male brain theory 9 of autism was an early theory that hypothesised autism was characterised by hypermasculine traits and caused by exposure to excess testosterone in the womb. This theory has long since been debunked, but it continues to shape the public perception that autism is a male‑only neurodevelopmental condition. A 2019 study instead found elevated oestrogen levels 10 in the womb during foetal development in some autistic people.
The EMB theory argued that women couldn't be autistic because they are hyper-empathisers and unable to be hyper-systemisers like men. It plots hyper-systemising and hyper-empathising on opposite ends of a continuum, reasoning that these are opposites.
The extreme female brain theory of psychosis
The Extreme Female Brain Theory of Psychosis 24 (Larson, 2010) is the female equivalent. The EFB theory labelled women as hyper mentalisers. Hypermentalising is the tendency to over-analyse others, make negative assumptions about their intentions, and misinterpret neutral faces as negative. It is a symptom of both BPD and CPTSD, related to hypervigilance or hyperawareness of threat.
The EFB theory argues that women who are hyper-empathisers are predisposed to mental illnesses with symptoms of mania, paranoia, and psychosis, specifically borderline personality (BPD), bipolar, and schizophrenia.
The problem with both theories
Both theories contributed to misconceptions about autism, leading to missed and misdiagnosis of autistic women and non‑binary people. Neither theory is substantiated by evidence. There is no evidence that autism is caused by excess testosterone or that it only affects men. Studies show bipolar and schizophrenia affect men and women equally. BPD continues to be overdiagnosed in women, non‑binary and trans people, and is one of the most common misdiagnoses 25 amongst late‑discovered autistic women, especially those with co-occurring CPTSD. A recent study explored the harms of mislabelling autistic women with BPD 26 and the benefits of a late-autism diagnosis.
No, autism is not a mental illness. It is considered a neurodevelopmental difference, which is a variation in how the brain develops and functions.
This means it's a natural difference in brain wiring that primarily affects social interaction and communication, as well as how a person experiences the world through their senses. Autism is not a disease, disorder, or mental illness that can be prevented or cured. That said, many autistic people find that positive coping strategies and accommodations can be helpful tools.
Additionally, autistic people, especially women and minority genders, can often experience mental health challenges like anxiety, depression, and CPTSD, which are often a result of trauma. But autism itself is a distinct condition, separate from these mental illnesses.
No, autism is not an intellectual disability (referred to as a general learning disability in the UK). Autism is a neurodevelopmental difference that affects social interaction, communication, and sensory processing. It does not impact intelligence or IQ.
That said, around half of autistic people may have a co-occurring intellectual disability, but many autistic people have average intelligence or giftedness. Autism and intellectual disability are separate and distinct, though they can co-occur.
No, autism is not a specific learning difficulty (SpLD) 27. Autism is a neurodevelopmental difference that affects social interaction, communication, and sensory processing.
Specific learning difficulties refer to challenges with skills like reading, writing, or maths, such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia.
While some autistic people may also have SpLDs, research does not show as strong a link between autism and SpLDs as it does with ADHD. Autism itself is not classified as an SpLD.
Masking, or "camouflaging," refers to the active efforts marginalised people make to conceal or modify aspects of their identity, behaviour, or communication to avoid discrimination, exclusion, rejection, bullying, or abuse. This includes both conscious imitation of others' actions or language and unconscious imitation, where people blend in or conform to social expectations without realising it (Pearson et al., 2021). 28
Masking is increasingly recognised as a trauma response. Research shows that neurodivergent women mask more than men, and minority genders mask at higher rates still. (Hull et al., 2020) 29. Masking is also commonly reported among people who identify as LGBTQIA+.
Rejection Sensitivity Dysphoria (RSD), also simply described as "rejection sensitivity," is an extreme adverse emotional, physiological, or behavioural reaction to perceived or actual rejection, abandonment, criticism, blame, or exclusion.
While it is often discussed in relation to ADHD, RSD is not recognised as a symptom of ADHD nor included in its diagnostic criteria. Rejection sensitivity is a recognised symptom of Social anxiety, Avoidant personality, PMDD, BPD and CPTSD. These mental health conditions, in the general population, are 2-3x more common in women and people AFAB.
RSD is increasingly understood as a trauma response. Relationally, ADHD and autistic women face significantly higher levels of victimisation, bullying, exclusion, exploitation, and abuse compared to their neurotypical peers. Consequently, they may be more sensitive to rejection as adults.
Alexithymia is a trait which involves difficulty identifying, labelling and describing one's own emotions.
While commonly reported by ADHD and autistic people, Alexithymia is not an ADHD symptom or an autistic trait. Alexithymia is theorised to be a trauma response.
Alexithymia is often conflated with both dissociation and Alexisomia 30 - which involves difficulties identifying, distinguishing and describing one's own bodily sensations and physical feelings. You may also hear people describe this as "difficulties with interoception."
Alexithymia, in the general population, is more common in men 31 and people AMAB. Other research shows elevated levels of alexithymia amongst people who identify as trans. 32 Research shows a link with alexithymia and eating disorders 33 particularly in ADHD and autistic women and AFAB with anorexia or bulimia.
1. World Health Organization. (2023). Autism. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders
2. Loomes, R., Hull, L., & Mandy, W. P. L. (2017). What is the male-to-female ratio in autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(6), 466–474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2017.03.013
3. Bai, D., Yip, B. H. K., Windham, G. C., Sourander, A., Francis, R., Yoffe, R., Glasson, E., Mahjani, B., Suominen, A., Leonard, H., Gissler, M., Buxbaum, J. D., Wong, K., Schendel, D., Kodesh, A., Breshnahan, M., Levine, S. Z., Parner, E. T., Hansen, S. N., Hultman, C., Reichenberg, A., & Sandin, S. (2019). Association of genetic and environmental factors with autism in a 5-country cohort. JAMA Psychiatry, 76(10), 1035–1043. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.1411
4. Sandin, S., Lichtenstein, P., Kuja-Halkola, R., Hultman, C., Larsson, H., & Reichenberg, A. (2017). The heritability of autism spectrum disorder. JAMA, 318(12), 1182–1184. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.12141
5. La Monica, I., Di Iorio, M. R., Sica, A., Rufino, F., Sotira, C., Pastore, L., & Lombardo, B. (2025). Autism spectrum disorder: Genetic mechanisms and inheritance patterns. Genes, 16(5), 478. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes16050478
6. Matson, J. L., Rieske, R. D., & Williams, L. W. (2013). The relationship between autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: An overview. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(9), 2475–2484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2013.05.021
7. Sokolova, E., Oerlemans, A. M., Rommelse, N. N., Groot, P., Hartman, C. A., Glennon, J. C., Claassen, T., Heskes, T., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2017). A causal and mediation analysis of the comorbidity between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(6), 1595–1604. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3083-7
8. Tick, B., Bolton, P., Happé, F., Rutter, M., & Rijsdijk, F. (2016). Heritability of autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis of twin studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57(5), 585–595. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12499
9. Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01904-6
10. Baron-Cohen, S., Tsompanidis, A., Auyeung, B., Nørgaard-Pedersen, B., Hougaard, D. M., Abdallah, M., Cohen, A., & Pohl, A. (2019). Foetal oestrogens and autism. Molecular Psychiatry, 25(11), 2970–2978. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0454-9
11. Just, M. A., Keller, T. A., Malave, V. L., Kana, R. K., & Varma, S. (2012). Autism as a neural systems disorder: A theory of frontal-posterior underconnectivity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36(4), 1292–1313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.02.007
12. Gardener, H., Spiegelman, D., & Buka, S. L. (2011). Perinatal and neonatal risk factors for autism: A comprehensive meta-analysis. Pediatrics, 128(2), 344–355. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2010-1036
13. Crider, A., Thakkar, R., Ahmed, A. O., & Pillai, A. (2014). Dysregulation of estrogen receptor beta (ERβ), aromatase (CYP19A1), and ER co-activators in the middle frontal gyrus of autism spectrum disorder subjects. Molecular Autism, 5(1), 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/2040-2392-5-46
14. Crider, A., & Pillai, A. (2017). Estrogen signaling as a therapeutic target in neurodevelopmental disorders. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 360(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.116.237412
15. Altun, H., Kurutaş, E. B., Şahin, N., Sınır, H., & Fındıklı, E. (2017). Decreased levels of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor in children with autism spectrum disorders. Psychiatry Research, 257, 67–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.06.008
16. Hwang, W. J., Lee, T. Y., Kim, N. S., & Kwon, J. S. (2020). The role of estrogen receptors and their signaling across psychiatric disorders. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(1), 373. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22010373
17. Molinaro, G., Bowles, J. E., Croom, K., Gonzalez, D., Mirjafary, S., Birnbaum, S. G., Razak, K. A., Gibson, J. R., & Huber, K. M. (2024). Female-specific dysfunction of sensory neocortical circuits in a mouse model of autism mediated by mGluR5 and estrogen receptor α. Cell Reports, 43(4), 114056. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114056
18. Dangmann, R. (2023). A hypothesis to explain the potential influence of hormones on the severity of autism spectrum conditions in women. Medical Hypotheses, 178, 111136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2023.111136
19. Enriquez, K. D., Gupta, A. R., & Hoffman, E. J. (2021). Signaling pathways and sex differential processes in autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 716673. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.716673
20. Arnold, M. L., & Saijo, K. (2021). Estrogen receptor β as a candidate regulator of sex differences in the maternal immune activation model of ASD. Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience, 14, 717411. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2021.717411
21. Zhao, H., Mao, X., Zhu, C., Zou, X., Peng, F., Yang, W., Li, B., Li, G., Ge, T., & Cui, R. (2022). GABAergic system dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 9, 781327. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2021.781327
22. Cruz, S., Conde-Pumpido Zubizarreta, S., Costa, A. D., Araújo, R., Martinho, J., Tubío-Fungueiriño, M., Sampaio, A., Cruz, R., Carracedo, A., & Fernández-Prieto, M. (2025). Is there a bias towards males in the diagnosis of autism? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuropsychology Review, 35(1), 153–176. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-023-09630-2
23. Burrows, C. A., Grzadzinski, R. L., Donovan, K., Stallworthy, I. C., Rutsohn, J., St. John, T., Marrus, N., Parish-Morris, J., MacIntyre, L., Hampton, J., Pandey, J., Shen, M. D., Botteron, K. N., Estes, A. M., Dager, S. R., Hazlett, H. C., Pruett, J. R., Schultz, R. T., Zwaigenbaum, L., Truong, K. N., Piven, J., & Elison, J. T. (2022). A data-driven approach in an unbiased sample reveals equivalent sex ratio of autism spectrum disorder-associated impairment in early childhood. Biological Psychiatry, 92(8), 654–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.05.027
24. Larson, F. V., Lai, M.-C., Wagner, A. P., Baron-Cohen, S., & Holland, A. J. (2015). Testing the "extreme female brain" theory of psychosis in adults with autism spectrum disorder with or without co-morbid psychosis. PLOS ONE, 10(6), e0128102. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0128102
25. Pires, S., Felgueiras, P., Borges, S., & Jorge, J. (2023). Autism spectrum disorder in females and borderline personality disorder: The diagnostic challenge. Cureus, 15(6), e40279. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.40279
26. Moore, L., Foley, S., & Larkin, F. (2025). Understanding the experiences of receiving and providing maternity care for autistic adults: A multi-perspectival interpretative phenomenological analysis study. Autism, 29(2), 435–446. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613241274518
27. American Psychiatric Association. (n.d.). What is specific learning disorder? https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/specific-learning-disorder/what-is-specific-learning-disorder
28. Pearson, A., & Rose, K. (2021). A conceptual analysis of autistic masking: Understanding the narrative of stigma and the illusion of choice. Autism in Adulthood, 3(1), 52–60. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2020.0043
29. Hull, L., Lai, M.-C., Baron-Cohen, S., Allison, C., Smith, P., Petrides, K. V., & Mandy, W. (2020). Gender differences in self-reported camouflaging in autistic and non-autistic adults. Autism, 24(2), 352–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319864804
30. Oka, T. (2020). Shitsu-taikan-sho (alexisomia): A historical review and its clinical importance. BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 14(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13030-020-00193-9
31. Levant, R. F., Hall, R. J., Williams, C. M., & Hasan, N. T. (2009). Gender differences in alexithymia. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10(3), 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015652
32. Kallitsounaki, A., & Williams, D. M. (2023). Brief report: An exploration of alexithymia in autistic and nonautistic transgender adults. Autism in Adulthood, 5(2), 210–216. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2022.0113
33. Nowakowski, M. E., McFarlane, T., & Cassin, S. (2013). Alexithymia and eating disorders: A critical review of the literature. Journal of Eating Disorders, 1, 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/2050-2974-1-21